German 105 mm howitzer leFH 18 became the main means of destroying enemy field fortifications on the Eastern Front due to its mobility and high rate of fire. This shell strike often became the first stage of any Wehrmacht offensive operation, suppressing Soviet infantry before the tanks arrived. The design of the gun made it possible to fire from closed positions, which made the crews less vulnerable to return fire.
The Soviet command relied on caliber, introducing into the troops 122 mm howitzer mod. 1938 (M-30), which had a more powerful high-explosive effect. The explosion of such a projectile created a crater that could damage the tracks of light armored vehicles or destroy a bunker. Artillery divisions of the Red Army used a mounted trajectory to hit targets hidden behind the reverse slopes of heights, where direct fire was impossible.
American industry provided allies 105 mm M2A1 howitzer, which became the standard for US divisional artillery. The gun was distinguished by its highly reliable mechanisms and the ability to quickly change position, which is critically important in conditions of maneuver warfare. Each division of the Western Allies had a battalion of such guns on staff for direct infantry support.
Design features and ballistics
The main difference between a howitzer and a cannon is the steepness of the projectile's flight path and the ability to fire from closed positions. Trunk elevation angle leFH 18 or M-30 allowed to reach 45 degrees or more, which ensured the destruction of targets in trenches and behind cover. mounted trajectory increased the effectiveness of fragmentation, since the explosion occurred directly above the target or in the crater.
To control fire, complex aiming systems were used, including panoramic sights. The calculation had to take into account not only the range, but also corrections for wind, air temperature and projectile deflection. The accuracy of the hit depended on the qualifications of the gunner and the quality of the preparation of the initial data by reconnaissance.
The recoil and recoil mechanisms damped the energy of the shot, allowing the gun to remain in position or move minimally. Carriage systems often had sliding frames, which increased stability when firing and made it possible to deploy the firing sector. Heavy howitzers, such as the German one sFH 18, often had a muzzle brake to reduce the load on the carriage.
The principle of operation of the muzzle brake
Muzzle brake is a device in the muzzle of the barrel designed to reduce the recoil force of a shot. Part of the powder gases following the projectile is diverted through special windows in the brake to the sides or back, creating a reactive force directed in the direction opposite to the recoil. This allows you to reduce the weight of the recoil parts and the total weight of the gun.
Soviet artillery school
The Red Army approached the issue of artillery weapons with pragmatism, creating a unified caliber system. 122 mm howitzer M-30 became one of the most widespread and successful designs, produced from 1939 to 1946. Its carriage with sliding frames provided a horizontal aiming angle of 49 degrees, which was an excellent indicator for that time.
To combat heavier targets and for corps artillery it was used 152 mm howitzer mod. 1938 (M-10). This weapon had colossal destructive power, but suffered from difficulties in transportation and a smaller horizontal aiming angle. In off-road and muddy conditions, towing such systems required powerful tractors or horse teams.
- 🔴 High barrel survivability and the ability to fire various types of projectiles, including concrete-piercing ones.
- 🔴 Simplicity of design, which made it possible to carry out repairs in the field using calculations.
- 🔴 Adaptability to mass production in evacuated factories.
Soviet designers paid special attention to the possibility of direct fire if necessary. Although this was not the main task of howitzers, in conditions of breaking through defenses or repelling tank attacks direct fire became the only way to survive. A concrete-piercing shell for a 152-mm howitzer could destroy almost any German field fortification.
The main advantage of Soviet howitzers was the balance between large-caliber firepower and relative ease of maintenance in the field.
German artillery power
Germany relied on manufacturability and modularity. 105 mm light field howitzer leFH 18 became the "workhorse" of the Wehrmacht divisions. It was lighter than its Soviet counterparts, which made it easier to maneuver, but was inferior in power to a high-explosive projectile. The Germans actively used self-propelled versions of this gun, installing them on the chassis of Pz.Kpfw tanks. II and Czech tanks.
Heavy field howitzer sFH 18 150 mm caliber was the main means of counter-battery warfare and the destruction of long-term structures. The gun had a muzzle brake and a semi-automatic wedge breech, which increased the rate of fire. However, its mass often became a problem when retreating or moving on sticky ground.
Late in the war, the Germans introduced the "long-range howitzer" concept in an attempt to compensate for the lack of shells with accuracy and range. Long-barreled guns appeared, but their production was limited by a lack of resources. Nevertheless, German artillery remained a formidable force until the last days of the war.
American approach to artillery
The United States entered the war later, but its industrial potential made it possible to create a standard M2A1 105 mm howitzer. This gun combined the best features of its European counterparts: a reliable carriage, an effective muzzle brake and high production technology. The Americans massively used howitzers as part of mechanized formations.
A feature of American tactics was the widespread use of radio communications to adjust fire. Fire M2A1 often opened at the request of forward observers, which ensured high efficiency in hitting moving targets. The logistics of supplying 105-mm ammunition was perfect; there was practically no shortage of shells.
- 🔵 Use of M7 Priest tracked tractors and self-propelled units based on the M2A1.
- 🔵 High degree of mechanization of loading and transportation processes.
- 🔵 Excellent ergonomics of the calculation workplace and ease of maintenance.
American howitzers were often mounted on tank chassis, creating self-propelled artillery units (SPG). Self-propelled gun M7 Priest became the symbol of American mobile artillery, providing support for tank spearheads in Europe. The open wheelhouse made it possible to fire at large elevation angles, while maintaining the advantages of howitzer ballistics.
Comparative characteristics of the main models
To understand the balance of power, it is necessary to consider the technical parameters of the main competitors. The data may vary depending on the modification and type of ammunition used, but the general trends can be clearly seen.
| Parameter | M-30 (USSR) | leFH 18 (Germany) | M2A1 (USA) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Caliber, mm | 122 | 105 | 105 |
| Weight in firing position, kg | 1800 | 1985 | 2260 |
| Max. range, km | 8.8 | 10.7 | 11.2 |
| Rate of fire, rds/min | 5-6 | 6-8 | 4-6 |
As can be seen from the table, German leFH 18 It outperformed the Soviet M-30 in range, but lost in projectile power. American M2A1 was heavier, but had the best range among 105 mm guns. The choice of 122 mm caliber for the divisional level in the USSR turned out to be a strategically correct decision, which made it possible to effectively deal with manpower and fortifications.
When comparing artillery, always consider not only the range, but also the range of ammunition. The ability to fire HEAT or smoke rounds is often more important than pure range.
Tactics of use and role in battle
Artillery preparation for an offensive was a key element of the doctrine of all belligerents. Howitzers were used to "soften" the defense before attack by infantry and tanks. Artillery shaft, when the fire was transferred into the depths of the defense as the troops advanced, required high discipline and accuracy of calculations.
In defense, howitzers were used to create barrage fire. German "streifen" (stripes of fire) and Soviet "death corridors" were cut into crossfire by howitzer batteries. Shells with ricochet fuses were especially effective against attacking infantry.
Counter-battery combat was also carried out with howitzers, although high-power guns were more often used for this. The task was to suppress enemy artillery before launching your own offensive. Reconnaissance of targets was carried out using aerial photography and sound measuring stations.
☑️Howitzer effectiveness factors
⚠️ Attention: Despite their power, howitzers were extremely vulnerable when coming under fire from anti-tank artillery or aircraft. The lack of armor and large dimensions made them an easy target in line of sight.
⚠️ Attention: The use of old ammunition or ammunition stored in unsuitable conditions could lead to a rupture of the barrel or undershooting of the projectile, which was fatal to its own crew.
Legacy and post-war development
Experience from World War II showed that the howitzer remains the king of field artillery. Post-war developments such as the Soviet D-30 or American M101, directly inherited the concepts developed in 1941-1945. The 152/155 mm caliber became the standard for NATO and Warsaw Pact corps and division artillery.
The advent of nuclear weapons and missile systems did not abolish howitzers, but only changed their role. They have become a tactical support weapon requiring high mobility and rate of fire. Self-propelled howitzers of our time are direct descendants of those machines that thundered near Moscow, Stalingrad and on the beaches of Normandy.
Studying the design and tactics of using howitzers of the Second World War is important for understanding the development of military thought. Engineering solutions of that time, such as carriages with sliding frames and effective muzzle brakes, became the basis for modern artillery.
Why was the 122 mm caliber considered optimal for the USSR?
The 122 mm caliber provided an ideal balance between the weight of the projectile (about 20 kg) and the weight of the gun itself. A shell of this caliber had enough high explosive effect to destroy field shelters, and the gun could be towed by standard trucks or horses. Larger calibers required heavy equipment, which was often in short supply.
What is the difference between a howitzer and a mortar?
The main difference is in the trajectory and design. The mortar has a very short barrel and shoots exclusively along a steep trajectory (angle of more than 45 degrees), often from the muzzle. The howitzer has a longer barrel, allows firing both along a mounted and flatter trajectory, and has a greater range and initial projectile velocity.
Were howitzers used for direct fire?
Yes, although this was not their main task. In critical situations, especially when breaking through defenses or repelling tank attacks, howitzer crews switched to direct fire. For this purpose, special sights or side-level optical devices were used. Concrete-piercing howitzer shells were an effective weapon against tanks.